Fig. 2

Engineering and characterisation of NAM-loaded EV. A Schematic illustration of the fabrication method for NAM-loaded ASC EV (NAM-EV). B The size distribution of both ASC EVs and NAM-EVs falls within the typical size range for EVs. C The pH of the ASC EV and NAM-EV were found to be neutral. D Confirmation by western blot of surface marker (CD63), internal marker (TSG101), and negative marker (ApoA1) of ASC EVs and NAM-EVs proved their identity as EVs. E The cup-shaped structural morphology of the TEM image confirmed the presence of EVs. Scale bars = 100 nm. F The loading efficiency of nicotinamide into EVs. ASC adipose-derived stem cell